Background
In the early 1980s, the price of uranium fell due to a lack of orders for new
nuclear power plants in the U.S. and the importing of uranium from other
countries. As a result, U.S. uranium mills were shut down or had their
operations scaled back. Recently, the price of uranium has rapidly increased
from $9.70 per pound in 2002 to over 90 per pound in 2007. Due to this price
increase, there have been numerous inquiries about the licensing of new uranium
production facilities. Uranium mill tailings contain the radioactive element
radium, which decays to produce radon, a radioactive gas. The radium in these
tailings will not decay entirely for thousands of years. The mill tailings pose
a potential hazard to public health and safety.
To provide for the disposal, long-term stabilization, and control of these
mill tailings in a safe and environmentally sound manner and to minimize or
eliminate radiation health hazards to the public, Congress enacted the Uranium
Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act of 1978 (UMTRCA). This Act established two
programs to protect the public and the environment from uranium mill
tailings.
The UMTRCA Title I program established a joint Federal/State-funded program
for remedial action at abandoned mill tailings sites where tailings resulted
largely from production of uranium for the weapons program. Now there is Federal
ownership of the tailings disposal sites under general license from the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC). Under Title I, the Department of Energy (DOE) is
responsible for cleanup and remediation of these abandoned sites. The NRC is
required to evaluate DOE's design and implementation and, after remediation,
concur that the sites meet standards set by the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA).
The UMTRCA Title II program is directed toward uranium mill sites licensed by
the NRC or Agreement States in or after 1978. Title II of the Act provides -
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NRC authority to control radiological and non-radiological hazards.
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EPA authority to set generally applicable standards for both radiological and
non-radiological hazards.
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Eventual State or Federal ownership of the disposal sites, under general
license from NRC.
There are five Agreement States - Colorado, Illinois, Texas, Utah and
Washington – that license "Atomic Energy Act section 11e.(2)"; material (i.e.,
certain mill tailings and related waste containing thorium or uranium). NRC is
required to make a determination that all applicable standards and requirements
have been met by uranium mills before termination of their Agreement State
license.
Regulations and Standards
UMTRCA charged the EPA with the responsibility for issuing generally
applicable standards for control of uranium mill tailings. In 1983, EPA issued
standards for both Title I and Title II sites. In November 1985, as mandated by
UMTRCA, NRC changed its regulations in 10 CFR Part 40, Appendix A to be
consistent with EPA Title II standards. Since 1985, various changes have been
made to Part 40 for the Title II sites. In 1995, EPA issued final Title I
groundwater standards.
The Atlas Site in Moab, Utah
Discussion
Title I - Reclamation Work at Inactive Tailings Sites -
Under the Uranium Mill Tailings Remedial Action (UMTRA) Project, DOE was charged
with completing surface reclamation at 24 inactive uranium mill tailings piles.
Two sites in North Dakota were withdrawn and tailings from some sites were
combined, resulting in 19 tailings disposal sites. These piles range in size
from approximately 60,000 to 4.6 million cubic yards of material. Except for a
site at Canonsburg, Pennsylvania, and an associated property at Burrell,
Pennsylvania, the inactive sites are located in western states. In 2001, the
Atlas site near Moab, Utah was transferred to DOE for remediation under Title I
of UMTRCA.
In 1993, DOE became a licensee of NRC under the general license provisions of
10 CFR 40.27. This transpired when NRC concurred in the completion of
construction and surface cleanup at the Spook, Wyoming, inactive tailings site
and accepted DOE's plan for long-term surveillance at the Spook site. By August
1999, 17 more sites were completed and brought under the general NRC license,
including sites at Ambrosia Lake, New Mexico; Burrell, Pennsylvania; Canonsburg,
Pennsylvania; Durango, Colorado; Falls City, Texas; Green River, Utah; Gunnison,
Colorado; Lakeview, Oregon; Lowman, Idaho; Maybell, Colorado; Mexican Hat, Utah;
Naturita, Colorado; Rifle, Colorado; Salt Lake City, Utah; Shiprock, New Mexico;
Slick Rock, Colorado; and Tuba City, Arizona. The only remaining sites are those
at Grand Junction, Colorado and Moab, Utah. Legislation allows a portion of the
Grand Junction site to remain open until 2023 to accept additional waste from
tailings contaminated properties. DOE has decided to transfer the Moab mill
tailings to a site near Crescent Junction, Utah, and is preparing a remedial
action plan for NRC concurrence describing its proposed action.
DOE initiated the groundwater cleanup phase of the UMTRA Project in 1991. It
has completed all of the 20 scheduled baseline risk assessments for the
groundwater cleanup phase and has transmitted them to concerned parties. Two
sites did not have groundwater contamination. DOE has developed Groundwater
Compliance Action Plans for demonstrating groundwater compliance at 13 sites and
submitted them to the NRC for concurrence. DOE has demonstrated groundwater
cleanup compliance at eight of those sites.
Tailings Cover, Gas Hills, Wyoming
Title II - Licensed Uranium Recovery Facilities and Mill Tailings
Sites - Of 16 uranium recovery facilities currently licensed by the NRC
under its regulations (10 CFR Part 40), there are 12 conventional uranium mills
and four in situ leach (ISL) facilities. There is also one former conversion
facility under reclamation for 11e(2) byproduct material. Two of the
conventional mill site licenses have been terminated and the reclaimed tailings
areas transferred to DOE for long-term care under the general license provisions
of 10 CFR 40.28.
A conventional mill uses uranium ore extracted by either open pit or deep
mining. The ore is then crushed and sent through the mill, where extraction
processes concentrate the uranium into uranium-oxygen compounds called
yellowcake. The remainder of the crushed rock, in a processing fluid slurry, is
placed in a tailings pile/cell. The "pile"; is actually a constructed
impoundment or a former uranium mine pit that must meet criteria in 10 CFR Part
40, Appendix A. These criteria include requirements for siting and design of the
pile, cover performance, and financial surety for decommissioning, reclamation,
and long-term surveillance.
With the ISL uranium extraction process, wells are drilled into rock
formations containing uranium ore. Water, with added oxygen and sodium
bicarbonate, is injected down the wells to mobilize the uranium in the rock so
that it dissolves in the groundwater. The water is pumped to the surface, where
a processing plant separates the uranium. Waste from this process is disposed in
a tailings pile at a mill site.
No NRC-licensed conventional uranium mills are operating. One mill is in
stand-by status and will likely resume commercial operation in the future. The
remaining conventional uranium mill sites have completed, or are completing,
reclamation activities to provide long-term stabilization and closure of the
tailings impoundments and the sites. Two of the four ISL facilities are
presently operating, one is on stand-by status, and one will likely resume
operations in the future. The NRC inspects these sites at semiannual to
three-year intervals depending on the operational (or stand-by) and reclamation
status.
The NRC-licensed sites are located in Nebraska, New Mexico, and Wyoming.
There also are eight conventional uranium mills in Agreement States that have
similar non-operational tailings impoundments. One mill in Colorado is
operating. Texas also has ISL facilities, but most are in, or have completed,
decommissioning. Three uranium mill sites are located in Utah, with one being
active, one in reclamation, and one returning to active status. An active mill
tailings disposal facility is also located in Utah. This mill tailings disposal
facility was licensed by NRC as a commercial facility in November 1993 to
receive and dispose of 11e.(2) byproduct material. In 2004, Utah became an
Agreement State for 11e.(2) byproduct material and regulatory authority over the
site transferred to the state. The site also has disposal cells licensed under
Utah Agreement State authority for the disposal of low-level radioactive waste
and mixed waste.
August 2006
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Last Reviewed/Update Friday, February 04,
http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/mill-tailings.htmld 2011
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